Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792

Surveys of 49 Warm Temperate Rainforest gullies in East Gippsland identifi ed discrete populations of Yellowwood Acronychia oblongifolia in 34 gullies. Antler rubbing of Yellow-wood by Sambar Cervus unicolor was obvious and widespread in all 34 gullies. Eight gullies were randomly selected to assess the extent of antler rubbing to 100 Yellow-wood plants in each gully (50 plants close to two randomly generated locations). Across all eight gullies an average of 64.6% (± 17.7 sd; range 36-92%) of Yellow-wood individuals were antler rubbed, with 51.0% (± 17.8 sd; range 18-80%) subjected to severe rubbing (>50% ringbarking), with mortality recorded at 30.3% (± 14.0 sd; range 6-52%). Yellow-wood with stems in the range 30–150 mm diameter at breast height (DBH) were subjected to the highest rates of antler rubbing (73–81%), with smaller stems (10–16 mm DBH) suff ering the highest rates of mortality. Sambar represent a major threat to the long-term persistence of Yellowwood and rainforest communities in East Gippsland. [...] Despite the high levels of mortality that are occurring, Yellow-wood trees often re-sprout from stems below antler rubs and/or sucker from roots. Yellow-wood therefore has the potential to persist in areas subjected to high levels of adult stem mortality; however, the regeneration is often subjected to antler rubbing once it reaches suitable size (Fig. 4), so the plant has a limited capacity to reach maturity. Therefore, the short-term ability for Yellow-wood to persist at sites with continued antler rubbing is high, but the long-term survival of Yellowwood is in doubt given that its primary regenerative mechanism for the renewal of the stand and individual is dramatically affected (Bilney, 2013). Four paired-plot exclosures (10 x 10 m) (Figure 3.3) were constructed in October 2006 and March 2007 for this study. Each pair or ‘unit’ consisted of a fenced and an open plot […] The health assessment was an estimation of relative percentage foliage cover present on the individual, visually estimated in comparison to an individual of optimum health (100%), illustrated by Lorimer and Lorimer (2005). [...] Sambar significantly decreased relative foliage cover of shiny nematolepis (Nematolepis wilsonii), a threatened understorey tree, through their antler rubbing activities. Thrashing of shiny nematolepis saplings also significantly decreased relative foliage cover, with sambar selecting saplings with a larger stem diameter from those available. Rubbed trees and thrashed saplings experienced damage to, on average, over half the stem circumference. [...] Sambar rubbing activities, likely to be caused over several years of repeated rubbing, may ringbark shiny nematolepis individuals and cause death, which was noted as the apparent cause of death for several individuals in 2005 (Lorimer and Lorimer 2005) and for seven dead individuals in this study, which all had 100% of circumference rubbed. [...] Storm damage at the site demonstrated that a single natural event can kill numerous trees. [...] Selective exclosures effectively differentiated the offtake of forage by sambar from that of native herbivores. […] Native herbivores reduced branch volume by 38.4%, while sambar reduced branch volume a further 41.4%. [...] This study indicates that the presence of damage by both cockatoos and sambar each independently increased the susceptibility of mature trees to death by storm damage.

Sambar damage was noted in 74 sites (guilies, crceks and coastal arcas) visited by the authors between 2002-2005 in East Gippsland, Victoria. […] When damage to a certain individual plant was identified as being caused by Sambar, the species and particular type or damage, including the extent and severity were noted, along with the plant community in which it was growing. [...] The most severe and obvious impacts of Sambar are related to browsing. causing death or reducing the litness of individual plants. This is usually done by removing stems, shoots and leaves (see Fig. 1 ), which reduces the plant's growth rate, resulting in shorter plants that remain reachable to Sambar for longer periods, eventually leading to understorey stunning and elimination. Reproductive output of certain species can also be reduced due to consumption of flowers, fruits, seeds and seedlings (e.g. Yellow Milk Vine Marsdenia flavescens, Prickly Currant-bush Coprosma quadrifida and Muttonwood Rapanea howittiana). [See Table 2] (Peel et al., 2005)

Through the use of selective exclosures, this study aimed to investigate the browsing impacts of sambar on forest understoreys in the Upper Yarra catchment, Yarra Ranges National Park. [...] This study was conducted in four forest types [Shrubby Foothill Forest, Damp Forest, Wet Forest and Riparian Forest] that occur throughout the park and were selected to investigate the impacts of sambar on forest understoreys because they are located adjacent to The Flats, where there is a high sambar density (Chapter 2). [...] A total of 41 exclusion units (123 plots) were established between October and December 2005: 35 were located in the Upper Yarra catchment and six in the O’Shannassy catchment. [...] Privet mock-olive (Notelea ligustrina) and Victorian Christmas bush (Prostanthera lasianthos) were found only in exclusion units located in areas of low sambar density and were highly browsed.